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A Philosophical Sketch of Hinduism
A Philosophical Sketch of Hinduism
Vedas are the roots for Vedantic Philosophy known as Vedanta. The three
most important sources for Vedanta are Upanishads, Brahma Sutra and
Geeta. Sankara, Ramanuja and Madhva have written elaborate commentaries
on these with their own translations. Three major forms of Vedanta were
developed respectively by Sankara, Ramanuja, and Madhva on the basis of
their interpretations of what totality is. Any intellectual debate to
prove which of them is right would be useless. Conclusions drawn from
such intellectual analysis require corroborations from actual personal
experience!. We have to be a Sankara, Madhvachar, Ramanuja, Buddha,
Chithanya, Ramakrishna, Aurobindo or Raman Maharishi and have similar
personal experience to understand what they realized! It does not matter
which of the schools of philosophy one follows or is convinced about -
it is only a matter of outlook and taste. In addition to Advaita, Dvaita
and Visishtadvaita, many other variations of philosophies were wide
spread in different parts of India. Saivaite Philosophy (including
Saktism and other variations) is a significant perspective of Hinduism.
Advaita: According to Sankara, God is infinitely higher than ourselves
and he is also infinitely near to us. He is nearer to us than our hands
and feet. He is the Soul of our souls. He is neither the body, nor the
senses, nor the mind nor the ego nor the intellect. He is the "I" that
is none of these and is ever-present witness to all our experiences. He
is our Atman and "He" is Brahman. He is the one Reality beyond which
there is none. Sankara's contribution to philosophy is his blending of
the doctrines of Karma and Maya, which culminated in a logical
exposition of the idea of non-dualism. The entire universe consisting of
Namarupa, names and forms, is but an appearance; Brahman, infinite
consciousness, is the sole reality. Sankara's philosophy, the essential
identity between Atman and Brahman is called "Advaita." It is a known
fact that Sankara was strongly influenced by Gaudapada, who had great
regard for the Buddhist philosophy. It is obvious that Sankara was
opposed to Buddhist thought in general, but unconsciously influenced by
some of its tenets.
Dvaita: Madhvachar's philosophy is "Dvaita". Brahman is Hari or Visnu
definable to an extent by the Vedas. He has a transcendental form,
Vyuhas, Incarnations are His parts and Laksmi is distinct. The qualities
of Brahman are it is fully independent, the cause of all causes, supreme
bliss, devoid of false attributes but possesses all qualities. The soul
is atomic, it pervades the body by intelligence, infinite in number,
Karta and Bhokta. Creation is the actuation of what is in the womb of
matter and soul by the action of Brahman. The cause of bondage is the
divine will of the Supreme and ignorance of the soul (svarupa). The
process of release is through whole hearted devotion, study of the Vedas
and detached karma. The goal is to gain release from samsara and
restoration of one's own individual and gain all powers except creation
and there is no return. The released souls rise to the nature of God and
never to identify with Him. They never lose their individuality, they
are only released from the bondage of samsara. In summary, Visnu is the
only supreme being; and Bhakti is the primary essential for liberation.
Madhvacarya believed that Sankara's philosophy was a disguised variety
of Buddhism and was vehemently objected to Advaita: it seemed to him
presumptuous for the individual soul to claim identity with Brahman.
Visishtadvaita: Ramanuja's philosophy is "Visishtadvaita" and has the
following features: Brahman is not nirguna but saguna, that is, it is not
impersonal but a personality endowed with all the superior qualities that
we know of, like knowledge, power and love. The Upanishads, when they
declare the nirguna nature of Brahman, only deny certain lower qualities
and do not deny its every quality. The universe and individual souls are
also eternal, but they exist as the body of God, as it were. In other
words, God, souls and matter together form an inseparable unity which is
one and has no second. In this sense ultimate reality is indeed one. But
the distinction between God, souls and matter must ever remain.
Saivite Philosophy of Sakti and Siva: Saktism is the worship of the
Supreme Power in the form of Mother, who creates, sustains and ends the
universe; from cycle to cycle. Sankara in his Saundaryalahari declares:
"Siva is able to function when united with Sakti; otherwise he is inert."
Siva is the unchanging consciousness and Sakti its changing power,
appearing as mind and matter. The Rig-Veda describes Sakti as the
embodiment of power and the upholder of the universe. Sakti is
represented as the sister of Krishna and the wife of Siva. She is
worshipped as Devi, who is one with Brahman. A variant of the Saivite
philosophy, which developed in Kashmir, is known as the Pratyabhijna
system. Here, as Dr. Radhakrishnan says, Siva is the subject as well as
the object, the experiencer as well as the experienced. "As the
consciousness on which all this resultant world is established, whence
it issues, is free in its nature, it cannot be restricted anywhere. As
it moves in the differentiated states of waking, sleeping, etc.,
identifying itself with them, it never falls from its true nature as the
knower." In the strain of Advaita Vedanta it is said, "That alone in
which there is no pleasure, no pain, no known or knower, nor again
unconsciousness, really exists."
The Saiva Siddhanta (Suddhadvaita): The unity of India transcends the
diversities of blood, fusions in color, language, dress, manners and
sects. It is seen in the fusion of Brahminical ideas and institutions
with Dravidian beliefs. The Saiva Siddhanta recognizes three entities:
God, the Soul or the aggregate of souls, and Bondage (Pati, Pasu and
Pasa). The expression Bondage denotes the aggregate of the elements which
fetter the soul and hold it back from union with God. In one of its
aspects it is Malam, the taint clinging to the soul. In another aspect
it is Maya, the material cause of the world. The peculiarity of the
Saiva Siddhanta doctrine which calls itself "Suddhadvaita" is its
difference from the Vedanta Monism. God pervades and energizes all souls
and, nevertheless, stands apart. This concept of the absolute is clear
from the Tamil word for God, Kadavul, meaning that which transcends
(kada) all things and is yet the heart (ul) of all things. When the
absolute becomes manifest, it is as Force (Sakti) of which the universe
is the product. The Dvaita system, on the other hand, insists on a
radical pluralism, and at the same time on the complete dependence of the
souls and the world on God.
Conclusion: Creation is an act of God. Matter is fundamentally real and
it undergoes a real evolution. The soul is a higher mode of God than
matter, because it is conscious. It is also eternally real and eternally
distinct from Him, though dependent on Him. In this case, creation means
the expansion of intelligence and the acquisition of a material body.
The soul is atomic in size whereas God is all-pervasive. Every visible
expression of God is only a fragment of God. Moksha can be obtained only
by the grace of God responding to the call of Bhakti and self-surrender.
For Sankara, this difference is secondary, and the ultimate identity is
primary. For Ramanuja, the ultimate identify is secondary, and difference
is primary. For a layman like me, what matters is the attempt to get a
flash of the beauty and intensity of ideas that constitute these
philosophies. Intellectual discussions on the correctness or otherwise
of any of these philosophies is neither relevant nor fruitful. It is an
historical fact that the influence of Buddhism and Jainism has greatly
contributed to the revival of Vedanta. Those of us who believe in
Hinduism, owe a great deal of gratitude to Sankara, the master mind for
this revival. Hinduism is one religion in spite of the plurality of
interpretations of Vedas, Upanishads and Bhagavad Geeta. This basic fact
should be understood in order to appreciate the essence of these
philosophies!
Note: This philosophical sketch is no more complete and it may very
well represent significantly small portion of the available literature.
I just want to make it clear that these philosophical facts are not my
own interpretation and they are restatements of facts contained in previous
publications. If there are any errors, I am responsible and forgive me. I have
no intention to misrepresent any philosophies. I welcome your comments. Two
sources give unbiased perspective of Vedanta: They are: (1) "Essentials of
Hinduism", by V. Krishnamurthy, Narosa publishing House, New Delhi, 1989.
(2) The Gazetteer of India, Volume 1: Country and people.
Delhi, Publications Division, Government of India, 1965.
CHAPTER Vlll: Religion by Dr. C.P.Ramaswami Aiyar,
Dr.Nalinaksha Dutt, Prof. A.R.Wadia, Prof. M.Mujeeb, Dr.Dharm
Pal and Fr. Jerome D'Souza, S.J.
Gopher Site: info.am.edu.au Port: 70
Directory: 1/elibrary/country/India/religion/Hindu/hindu-gaz
" Have a Good Day "
"Truth is a pathless land, and you cannot approach it by any path
whatsoever, by any religion, by any sect. Truth, being limitless,
unconditioned, unapproachable by any path whatsoever, cannot be
organized; nor should any organisation be formed to lead or to
coerce people along any particular path." J. Krishnamoorthy
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