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Excerpts from:
Sociology of Names and Nicknames of
India with special reference to Kashmir
by Ram Krishen Kaul
Utpal Publications
Motiyar, Rainawari, Srinagar-3, Kashmir
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Kashmiri Surnames
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1 Origin
Although Kashmiris are said to be the true specimen
of Aryan race, yet the last authoritative word
about their origin has not been said so far. Scholars
are divided on the question of the ancestory of Kashmiris.
However, many Western and Indian scholars
have argued that Kashmiri Pandits, without any doubt,
belong to Aryan race. Pandit Anand Koul says, "it
is certain that it (Kashmir) was a colony of Aryan
immigrants from Central Asia. Their features and fair
complexion be speak them of the inner Aryan race''.
Thompson is of the view that the Aryans were a long
headed race of tall stature with narrow noses and fair
complexion. Their purest representatives are found
today mainly in Kashmir. Monier Williams declared
the Kashmiri Pandits as the finest type of Aryan race.
George Campbell says that the Kashmiris are quite
High-Aryan in the type of their features - very fair
and handsome, with high chiselled features, and no
trace of inter-mixture of the blood of any lower race.
Our concern is not to dispute with the views of
learned scholars quoted above but only to be acquainted
with all shades of opinion and views. Mr. Bamzi is
right when he says, "So far no ethnological survey of
the Kashmiri people has been conducted, and we have
only to depend upon superficial and general affinities
which clearly point to their being physically allied to
the people living in the region of Chitral, Gilgit,
Afghanistan and Punjab. These Nodics who infiltrated into
Kashmir are identical with the ancestors of the Dard
speaking tribes, the Pisachas of the Sanskrit literature.
Legend clescribes the sage Kashyapa as the leader
of colonisers of the valley. He is said to have under
gone severe penances, killed the water demon of Satisara,
drained out the stagnant water, and finally established a
colony of his followers. Kashyapa, aithough an eminent
Vedic Rishi, is said to have belonged to a non-Aryan
stock. Even legend describes him "the father of all
creatures including Nagas and Pisachas." The legend of
Nilamata Purana describes in detail the stiff opposition
and long controversy of Nagas and Pisachas to the Aryan
immigrants. It would not be out of place to have a brief
introduction with the Pisachas of yore who, if recent
researches are any indication, might have been one
among many of our ancestors.
2 Pisachas
Legend classifies them with fiends and evil spirits.
The Vedas have placed them lower than the Rakshasas
(Ogres), and amongst the most vile and noxious of
beings. They are said to have been residing at cemeteries,
devouring corpses and causing malignant diseases.
Accounts differ as to their origin. The Brahmana and
the Mahabharata say that they were created by Brahma,
together with the Asuras and Rakshasas, from the stray
drops of water which fell apart from the drops out of
which gods, men, gandharvas etc., had been produced.
According to Manu they sprang from the Prajapatis. In
the Puranas they are represented as the offspring of
Kashyapa by his wife Krodhavasa or Pisacha, or Kapisa.
The Nilamata describes them as friends of Daityas,
dwelling in an Oasis, in the middle of the sea of sand.
In Kashmir they lived under the leadership of Nikumba.
As a result of Kashyapa's curse on the Nagas, the
Pisachas occupied the valley of Kashmir for six months
each year. This account refers to the human character
of the Pisachas.
As already pointed out that they were the ancestors
of the Dards, there is nothing to disbelieve that they,
finding the climate of the valley warmer than the in
hospitable regions of the North and East, came down
to occupy the valley of Kashmir for the winter months.
Mr. Bamzi quotes a statement of Drew to substantiate
the theory of seasonal migration. "Further East (of
Padar) across the glaciers lies the inaccessible country
of Zanskar where the people and cattle live indoor for
six months out of the year, where trees are scarce and
food is scarcer. Farthest east is Rupshu, the lowest
point of which is 13,500 feet. In Rupshu live the
nomad champas, who are able to work in an air
of extraordinary rarity and complain bitterly of the heat of
Leh." And this is, perhaps, the only reason that they
would leave the valley with the first sign of coming of
Spring.
Although once held to be non-Aryan aboriginals,
and usually assigned a home in the Vindhya regions,
they are now believed to have been of Mongolian
affinity. The Mahabharata refers to the north-west
as their home; they are thought to have belonged to the
region immediately, South of the Hindu Kush and may
have been Scythians. They are described as reddish
in appearance and as formidable opponents in war.
The Rig-Veda records a prayer to Indra against them in
the battle.
Their language Paisachi acquired fame through
Gunadhya's tale, Brihat Katha, and their Pisacha form
of marriage was recognised in the later Aryan social
system. Their skill in Surgery was such that this
science was referred to in the Gopatha Brahmana as the
Pisacha Veda.
3 Panchagaudas
Geographically the Brahmanas are divided into two
groups (i) Panchagaudas residing the north of Vindhyas
and (ii) Pancha Dravidas residing south of the Vindhyas.
The Panchagaudas consist of Kanyakubja, Sarasvata,
Gauda, Mithala and Utkala branches, whereas Pancha
Dravidas consist of the Mahavashtriyan, Telgu, Dravida
Karnataka and Malabar branches.
3.1 Sarasvats
Kashmiri Pandits, with a few exceptions, belong
to the category of Sarasvat Brahmans. There is also
a Vaisya caste, but it is very small in number and is
found only in some towns. However, classifying them
as a Vaisya caste is disputed by many. They claim
themselves to be the descendants of purest of Brahmanas.
There is, according to Prof. Madan, some divergence
of views regarding the Sarasvats of other parts of India
and Kashmir being one single caste. Some of his
infolmants claim that Kashmiri Brahmanas are distinct
from others linking their caste to the goddess Sarasvati,
while according to Mr Madan, Sarasvats as a whole
derive their name from the river Sarasvati. He
further refers to Jatimala where Sarasvats and Kashmiri
Brahmans are mentioned separately, and at the same
time refers to the Sarasvat Brahmans of Western coast
claiming their descent from Kashmiri Brahmans. So
far as the separate mention of Kashmiri and Sarasvat
Brahmans is concerned it does not prove that the
Kashmiri Brahmans belong to some non-Sarasvat caste.
It is a matter of cross classification only. A Maharashtrian,
a Gujrati or a Punjabi can belong to both
the categories of Sarasvat and Maharashtrian, Gujrati
or Punjabi Brahmans. Further modern scholars believe
that Sarasvati river and the goddess Sarasvati
are, in fact, only one entity, the latter having originated
from the myth surrounded over the former. It may,
therefore, be necessary to peep through the mist of
myth and legend to find out their real identity and
mutual relationship.
3.2 Sarasvati river
In the Mahabharata the Rishi Sarasvata is represented
as being, the son of the personified river Sarasvati. In a
time of great drought he was fed with fish
by his mother and so was enabled to keep up his knowledge
of the Vedas, while other Brahmans were reduced
to such straits for the means of subsistance that study
was neglected and the Vedas were lost. When the
drought was over, the Brahmans flocked to him for
instruction from him. "This legend" says, Wilson
"appears o indicate to revival, or, more probably, the
introduction of the Hindu ritual by the race of Brahmans,
or the people called Sarasvats", who dwelt near the
Sarasvati river.
3.3 Sarasvati goddess
Sarasvati has been described primarily a river, in
the Vedas, but is celebrated in hymns both as a river
and a deity. As a river goddess, she is lauded for
fertilising and purifying powers of her waters, and as the
bestower of fertility, fatness and wealth. Her position
as Vach, the goddess of speech, finds no mention in
the Rig-Veda, but is recognised by the Brahmanas
and the Mahabharata. Dr Muir endeavours to account
for her acquisition of this character. He says, "when
once the river had acquired a divine character, it was
quite natural that she should be regarded as the patroness
of the ceremonies which were celebrated on the margin
of her holy waters and that her direction and blessing
should be invoked as essential to their proper
performance and success. The connection into which she
was thus brought with sacred rites may have led to
the further step of imagining her to have an influence
on the composition of the hymns which formed so
important a part of the proceedings, and of identifying
her with Vach, the goddess of speech''.
3.4 Religious Practices
It is thus clear, that the Sarasvats of Kashmir are
in no way different from the Sarasvats of plains, so far
as their origin is concerned. But there is a wide difference
in their religious beliefs and social customs. The
earliest inhabitants of Kashmir, probably, cherished
some aboriginal beliefs the details of which are not
traceable now, the Naga worship being one of them.
After the fall of Buddhism, in Kashmir, the Shaivism
with all the vigour was re-introduced. Though exact
date and circumstances leading to the introduction of
Shaivism in the valley are shrouded in a mystery, yet
the archaeologists have discovered traces of Shiva worship
to the remote past. "It is not known, whether
the Shiva of Kashmir was an immigrant from the
neighbouring Indus valley or was of local origin. The conception of Rudra-Shiva of the Vedic Aryans perhaps
might have had some influence on the development and
early growth of Shaivism in the valley. . . whatever
might have been the origin of Shaivism in Kashmir
there is no doubt that Shiva as a popular deity was
widely worshipped in the valley from a remote past."
Early Shaivism was of the Pasupati cult. Mahabharata
states that the doctrine of Pasupata was preached first
by Shiva Srikantha. He was regarded in the valley as the
promulgator of Shivagama or Agamanta Shaivism
which included within itself system of Pasupata.
Pasupati is one of many names of Rudra, who is believed
to be the 'lord of creatures'. Kashmiris have been,
thus, worshipping the Lord Shiva in the form of Maha
Rudra, the Lord of all Rudras.
3.5 Rudra
Rudra has been defined as a 'howler or roarer; the
terrible', 'the rudy one'. In the Vedas Rudra has many
attributes and many names. He is the howling terrible
god, the god of storms, the father of the Rudras or
Maruts and is sometimes identified with the god of
fire. On the one hand, he is a destructive deity who
brings diseases upon men and cattle, and upon the
other he is a beneficent deity supposed to have a healing
influence. These are the germs which afterwards developed into the god Siva. It is worthy of note that
Rudra is first called Maha-deva in the white Yajurveda.
As applied to the god Shiva, the name of Rudra generally
designates him in his destructive character.
In the Brihadaranyakaupanishada the Rudras are
the vital breaths (Praa), the heart (Manas) being the
eleventh. Their number is often discrepently given
as three, seven, or eleven, sometimes even more. ln
some legends, the Rudras are the seven manifestations
of the god Rudra. According to the vishnupurana,
Rudra sprang from a drop of blood which fell into the
fire when Brahma once scratched himself as he wiped
the perspiration from his brow with a piece of sacrificial
wood. Brahma commanded Rudra to divide himself
into male and female, then to multiply into eleven
beings, and of these some were black and ferocious and
some white and gentle. They were (i) Mrigvyadha,
(ii) Sarpa, (iii) Nirriti, (iv) A Jaikapada, (v) Ahirbudhnya,
(vi) Pinakin, (vii) Dahana, (vii) Kapalin, (Skull holding, a
name also given to Shiva), (ix) Sthanu, (x) Bhaga
and (xi) Tryambaka. In other legends again the eleven
Rudras are the sons of the rishi Kashyapa by Surabhi.
Yet another legend relates that a Brahmin desired
a son, and a youth appeared to him. When the Brahmin
asked his name the youth wept and the Brahman named
him Rudra, 'weeper'. The lad wept seven times more
and was given seven more names: Bhava, Sarqa,
Isana, Pashupati, Bhima, Ugra, Mahadeva.
Rudra's essential importance lies in the fact that in
later mythology he evolved into Shiva and grew to great
prominence in the Hindu Pantheon. Generally the
name Rudra when applied to Shiva denotes Shiva's
destructive character.
3.6 Sakti Worship
Besides worshipping Lord Shiva in his Rudra form,
Kashmiri Pandits are devout worshippers of the Sakti,
the consort of Shiva. Each family alleges its devotion
and allegiance to one of the three manifestations of the
goddess Durga e.g., Sharika, Ragiya and Jawala.
Various religious rites performed by the Pandits of
Kashmir are said to be according to Charanaia Kathka
School. The Sutras of Laguksha follow this school
and guide all the rites from birth to death. Moreover,
certain aboriginal beliefs and practices like, Yaksha
Puja, Daittya Puja etc., are also observed strictly.
Census report of 1911 refers Kashmiri Pandits as Shakites
or Tantrikas and later Western scholars have also
referred to a host of Tantarik practices being followed
by them. Tantara is said to be a later religious development. Prominence is given to the female energy of
the deity, his active nature being personified in the
person of his Sakti. Tantaras are generally devoted
to one of the manifold forms of Devi, the Sakti of Shiva,
"Devi, as the Sakti of Shiva, is the especial energy concerned
with sexual intercourse and magical powers''.
The Tantaric worship of Kashmiris seems to have been
more influenced by the Vamachar than by the Dakshanachar
(a more decent form). Speaking satirically
about the performance of the Brahmanas, Kshemendara
writes, "Being addicted to Vamachar, bent upon taking
wine; having set at naught the piety of his clan, with
a plate of fish meat in his hand; he comes reading for
scriptures".
However, the Tantaric practices in Kashmir, in spite
of being Vamachari, did not degenerate to such a low
level as they did elsewhere in India. Dayanand
Saraswati, speaking on Garwal Tantaras, writes that incest
even with mothers, daughters, sisters and low-born
maids of outcastes was practised. Worship of gods
was done in a perfectly nude state. Madhya (liquor),
Meena (fish), Mans (flesh), Mudra (naked worshipping)
and Maithuna (sexual intercourse) were considered as
the best means of salvation.
4 Social Organisation
Socially Kashmiri Pandits are divided into 199 exagamous
sections (gotras). The founders of these
gotras are said to be some Rishis or an inspired saint.
The social prestige of a group used to be determined
by the spiritual superiority of the founder of the group
(i.e., gotra). But in reality the social position is determined by the occupation followed by a certain family.
An occupation promising better material prospects,
leaving aside certain 'dagi' occupations to which an
unreasonable hatred has been developed through
generations, command more social respect and prestige.
A fast reformation is taking place in the Pandit outlook of occupations. Government Service, till recently,
was considered to be the best of all. But with the rapid
growth of industries and private sector, and also the
indirect restrictions imposed on Government Service for
Pandits, they are increasingly flocking towards private
sector. Moreover, the private sector employment
promises better avenues of promotion and reward of
the talent. Various Government enactments and
labour laws have made these private sector jobs more
secure than even the Government jobs. Trade and commerce
are also now preferred to the Government jobs
and age-old apathy is giving way to more and more
enthusiasm to enter those fields. Development of
tourism and allied industries has brought this welcome
change in their age-old rusted thinking. However,
old habits died hard and it will take another one or two
generations to emancipate them fully from the old
prejudices and complexes.
4.1 Gotras
Brahmanas all over India considered themselves
superior to all other castes and creeds. They prided
on their divine origin. It is said that once a Brahmana
was performing a sacrifice, there came forth from it
the Seven Rishis - Bhrign, Angiras, Marichi, Atri,
Paulaha, Pulastya and Vasistha. The Brahmanical
sects were likewise supposed to derive their origin from
seven Rishis, though not exactly the seven just named
of whom the fifth, Paulaha, brought forth demons
(Raksasas), and the sixth, Pulastya, devils (Pisachas),
while the seventh Vasistha, died and appeared again as
a descendant of Marichi. Then, as Bhrign and Angiras,
owning to their mythical character, could not properly
be represented as founders of families, their place is
taken in the Brahmanical theory by other three ancestors,
Bhrign being superseded by Jamadagni, and the Angiras
by Gautaina and Bhardvaja. In the Satpatha Brahmana,
accordingly the seven Rhisis enumerated as ancestors are
Gautama, Bhardvaja, Visvamitra, Jamadagni, Vasistha, Kashyapa
and Atri. To these traditions add an eighth, Agastya, and thus
the Brahmanical clans (Gotras) are in reality traced to eight
ancestors. These rank as Gotrakarins - the founders of
numerous Brahmanical families, and their descendants
are the various gotras.
4.2 Number of Gotras
There has been a considerable difference of opinion
regarding the exact number of gotras at a given time.
Mahabharata restricts their number to four only.
But Bodhyana raises the number to eight. He, at the
same time, describes their number in crores with
forty-nine Pravaras. He recognises the descendants of
Visvamitra, Jamadagni, Bhardvaja, Gautama, Atri,
Vasistha, Kashyapa, and Agastya as the real gotras.
A pravara contains three or five most ancient
(Mantardrashta) rishis like eight gotra founders.
Modern scholars are also not having any unanimity
of views regarding the number of gotras. Mr. Rao
holds that the original eight families of Gotrakarins
were supplemented by ten more and that the latter
consisted of Brahmanas who had for a time followed
the vocations of Kshatriyas and had become Brahmins
again, regarding themselves as descended either from
Bhrign or from Angiras. Mr. Venkatarama states
the number of Rhisis as seven. Four of them are human
beings. But eighteen groups arose out of these four
..Ten out of eighteen families were of the Ksatriya
origin. Bhrgu took into his fold four Ksatriyas who
were also makers of hymns. "Kashmiri Brahmins
are said to have originaly belonged to only six gotras,
viz., Dattatreya, Bhardwaja, Paledeva, Mudgalya and
Dhaumyayana. By intermarriage with other Brahmins
the number of gotras multiplied to 199."
Census Report of 1911 states the number of gotras of Kashmiri
Pandits to be 133 and describes them the direct descendant
of Kashyapa Rishi. There is a note in the
margin saying that the original gotras did not exceed
six and the remaining 127 gotras came into existence
due to intermixture with other Brahmans. Mr. Ganjoo
does not agree with the remarks of Census report of
1911. He states, "this is a very sweeping remark which
is not corroborated by any historical fact. Each and
every Kashmiri Brahman traces his descent from a
particular Rishi or inspired saint whose name they bear
as their own Gotra. Kashyapa was one of the Rishis
who made the valley habitable and Kashmiri Brahmans
do not believe to have descended from him."
5 Rishi
It would not be out of place to have a brief introduction
with the real character of some of the Gotrakarin
Rishis and the role they played in the social life of yore.
The origin of the term 'Rishi' is not certain. Some
derive it from the term Ras, 'Yell', while others consider it
to have originated from a word meaning 'flow'.
In Sanskrit literature, the term is applied to a Sage,
Patriarch, Cellestial Poet, Wizard and Mage, and in
general a rishi was an elder possessed of extraordinary
power and wisdom.
Puranas describe him as a lover of solitude living
in a forest or a mountain either alone or with a small
group consisting of his family and disciples. His home
was known as an 'Ahrama'.
5.1 Kinds
Several kinds of rishis are distinguished, such as
Prajapati, Saptrishi, Siddamanu, Natha, Pitri, and so
on. These designations are sometimes used inter-
changeably, and a Maharishi, may be a Prajapati or
Saptrishi or a Brahma Rishi. Our study being limited
to Brahmans, a brief introduction of Brahmarishi may
be given.
5.2 Brahmarishi
The Brahma created sages, also called the Divja-Rishis,
(twice born Sages). They are the reputed
founders of the Brahman gotras. Brahmarishis
figure prominently in the community system of brahmin
families. There is a great deal of inconsistency
about them. They are variously and confusingly listed
in Brahmanas, Epics and Puranas, but seven or eight
traditional Brahmarishis are generally named from
among the following: Agastya (non-Aryan in name
and appearance): Angiras (either Persian or Dravidian);
Attri (tribal priest of out c:aste races); Bhardvaja: Bhirgu
(founder of Bhargavas); Jamadagni: Kanva, Kashyapa
(non-Aryan progenitor of pre-Aryan tribes): Vasistha;
Marichi, Pulastya; Pulaha; Kratu; Gautama.
5.3 Character
Many rishis are born in extra-ordinary circumstances.
In origin the rishis came from diverse stock. Some
were Brahmans; many were of pre-Aryan, native origin.
A few rishis used their power for good, and their presence
removed diseases or drought. But as rule they were a
thoroughly irascible lot and unrelenting in their vengeance.
The rishis' wrath is a favourite theme in Sanskrit literature.
5.4 Bhardvaja
A Rishi to whom many Vedic hymns are attributed.
He was the son of Brahaspati and father of Drona, the
preceptor of the Pandavas. The Taittiriya Brahmana
says that "he lived through three lives" (Probably
meaning a life of great length), and that he became
immortal and ascended to the heavenly world, to union
with the Sun". In the Mahabharata he is represented
as living at Hardwar; in the Ramayana he received
Rama and Sita in his hermitage at Prayaga, which was
then and afterwards much celebrated. According to
some of the Puranas and the Hari-vansa, he became by
gift or adoption the son of King Bharata, and an absurd
story is told about his birth to account for his name:
His mother, the wife of Utathya, was pregnant by her
husband and by Brihaspati. Dirgha-tamas, the son
of her husband, kicked his half brother out of the womb
before his time, when Brihaspati said to his mother,
'Bhara-dwa-Jam' 'cherish this child of two fathers'.
5.5 Mudgala
A Vedic Rishi from whom the Mudgalya Brahmans
sprang. There were several other Brahmans named
Mudgala. A Sage of this name is recorded in the
Mahabharata to have "lived a life of poverty, piety and
self-restraint, offering hospitality to thousands of Brahmans,
according to his humble means, with the grain
which he gleaned like a pigeon, and which never
under went diminution, or rather increased again, when it was
required." The choleric sage Durvasa went to test
the patience of Mudgala, and six times devoured all
the food which his host possessed without ruffling his
temper. Durvasa in his admiration declared that
Mudgala would go bodily to heaven, and the messenger
of the gods arrived with his heavenly car. The sage,
before accepting the invitation, desired to be informed
of the joys and ills of heaven. After hearing a full explanation,
he found that the enjoyments of heaven must
come to a close, so he declared that he "had no desire
for heaven, and would seek only that eternal abode
where there is no sorrow, nor distress, nor change."
He dismissed the messenger of the gods, and began to
practise ascetic virtues, becoming indifferent to praise
and blame, regarding clod, gold, stones, and gold as
alike. Pure knowledge led to fixed contemplation;
and that again imparted strength and complete
comprehension, whereby he obtained supreme eternal
perfection in the nature of quietude (Nirvana.)
5.6 Dattatriya
He is a trinity in unity of Brahma, Visnu and Siva,
representing the principles of creation, sustenance,
and dissolution of the Universe. He is a son of Atri
and Ansuya. He had three sons, Soma, Datta and
Durvasas, to whom also a portion of the divine essence
was transmitted. He was the patron of Kartavirya,
and gave him a thousand arms.
Pandit Dinanath Madan has published a fanciful
story about the origin of Dattatriya in Bahari Kashmir.
Its Urdu version has been included by Mr. Fauq in his
'Twarikhi Akwami Kashmir' as follows:
"Varsha Attri was a famous Sanskrit scholar living
in a village of Baramullah, much before the war of
Mahabharata. His famous book 'Attri Dharma Sastra'
is still available in the country. He had three sons,
Dattatriya, Durvasa and Soma. Dattatriya is a combination
of two words, Datt plus Attriya. Attri along
with his wife, once went on a pilgrimage to the Central
India, and reached to a place known as Chitrakot.
Those were the days of Lord Rama's exile. It is at
this place that he had the privilege of being Sri Rama's
guest.
Dattatriya received his initial education in Kashmir,
but with the coming of youth, he like his father left his
home touring and travelling Northern India. There
are a number of places in Central and Western India
where he is supposed to have stayed for sometime.
He met Parasar Rishi and Vamadeva at Badrak Ashram
in the Himalayas. Maharaja Prahlad and Yadvan had
the privilege of receiving his Upadesha.
Dattatriya had a huge and powerful body and lived
for a long time. He had many sons. His descendants
are Kouls of Kashmir settled in and outside the valley
Dattatriya Brahmans are found in Maharashtra and
Deccan also. They are also his descendants. They
are generally called Marhatta Brahmins but the word
Dattatriya is written as a prefix to their names."
6 Gotras in Vedas
Reference to the word Gotra in the Vedic literature
is very infrequent. Rigveda refers to it only at a few
places and among them it has been referred to as
a mountain and a cloud, at four places. Gotra has
mostly heen used in prayers to Indra. There is a considerable
difference of opinion among scholars regarding
the real connotation of the word 'gotra' as used in the
Vedas. Some consider it as a 'cowshed' while others
connect it with a group. "The use of word Gotra
in the Vedas has not been made in its current
connotation. It often stood for a cowshed or group".
The earliest reference to its usage in the modern sense
is found in Chhandogyaupanisada, where an Acharya
(teacher) asks the name of gotra of Safyakama". Institution
of gotras had been fully established by the time of
Buddha, because Buddhist and Jaina literature makes
frequent references to it.
6.1 Sociological Meaning
Ancient battles were not fought to establish a power
balance between different nations, but were on the other
hand fought for seizure of good pastures and grazing
grounds. Lifting away of cattle was also a common
phenomenon. Naturally the 'cowsheds' were guarded
with great care and these 'cowsheds' took the form of
forts. Inmates of a certain cowshed were later on called
the members of that particular 'gotra' (cowshed). One
who possessed more number of cattles assumed the
leadership of the gotra. Visvamitra, Vasistha etc., were
in fact the big cowherds, who later on became the
founders of different gotras. Some outsiders were also
allowed to graze their cattle in these pastures and with
the passing of time they were also known by the name
of the gotra under which they had taken shelter. This
did not mean that they were one of the descendants of
Yisvamitra or Vasistha, but having lived very close to
them they developed a sense of kinship towards that
gotra.
"In ancient times Indian family, even when - in
consequence of its numerical increase - its property
had been greatly subdivided, would still continue to
use and occupy jointly the land reserved for grazing
cattle, and we may, therefore, conclude it is said, that
the Brahmanical Gotra was in its origin - simply a
community of this kind i.e. a family whose members
enjoyed joint rights in a particular pasturage". Ganjoo
disagreelng with this hypothesis says that it does not
account for most characteristic features of the gotra,
which in fact, can be explained only by comparison with
the Gots of the aboriginal tribes in India.
7 Intermarriages
Marriage between the members of same gotra has
been disallowed by most of the Hindu Law-givers.
Aryans made it obligatory to marry within one's own
caste but not the gotra. Marriages within the same
gotra were not prohibited in India alone but were looked
down upon in other parts of the world too. Wherever
the gotra system was not in vogue, the tottem of the
tribe was brought into use to separate one group from the
other. Origin of this practice of prohibiting marriage
within the same gotra is shrouded in mystery. Diverse
views have been forwarded by many scholars as the
probable reasons. Some scholars believe that the
number of girls was less than the number of boys in
ancient times. This led to forbidding of intermarriage
within same gotra. Others hold that this practice
came into vogue to stop the free sex within a tribe,
but many believe the absence of mutual sexual attraction
among the members of the same clan to be a probable
reason. Etkinson believes that the chief of a tribe
in ancient world, used to reserve every young girl of
the tribe for his own use, compelling, thus, the young
men of the tribe to find their brides outside the tribe.
This became a practice in the long run. The more
palusible reasons have been forwarded by Dr. Pande
who says that the youngmen of a tribe would go to
distant lands in search of pastures and other means
of livelihood, which brought them into direct contact
with girls of other tribes. Thus giving birth to a system
of inter-gotra marriage, which won the public approval
in the long run." Manu recommends to a twice-born
boy only such a girl who is not related by blood on her
mother's side, and does not belong to the same gotra
on his father's. Apastamba forbades a father to give
his daughter to a man of the same gotra as himself,
while Gautama and Vasistha permit marriage only
between those who have not the same Pravara. The
principle of 'same gotra' is very seldom observed in
the marriages of Kashmiri Pandits nowadays. However,
the principle of Sapindi is still respected by all.
Practically the prohibition of marriage between the
members of same gotra is an anachronism. Numerically
the Pandit community being very small, the forbiding of
'Sagotra' marriages will create many social
problems than solve any of them.
8 Brahmanism in Ancient Kashmir
Pandits of Kashmir, popularly known as 'Bhatta'
all belong to Brahrmana 'Varana'. Bhatta is the Prakrit
form of the Sanskrit Bhariri which means 'scholar',
'doctor' or the same as Pandit. Caste system of ancient
Kashmir included in itself besides four Varnas many
castes and sects such as Chandala, Bomba, Damara,
Nishada, Kirata, Kayastha and Tantrin, etc. That the
casteism in Kashmir was much more flexible than in
other parts of India is proved beyond doubt by Kalhana's
Raj Tarangini. Brahmans were the uppermost caste
of the valley. The origin of Brahmanism in Kashmir
is not very clear, but there is ample evidence to show
that a large majority of them consisted of the immigrants
from the plains of India. "Abhinavagupta and
Bilhana's ancestors were Madhyadesi Brahmanas
whereas the ancestors of Abhinanda . . . hailed from
Gawda... The earliest inscriptional reference of the
Brahmanas occur in the edict of Asoka, where they
have been mentioned as one of the most important
classes among the population of the Maurya empire.
Since the valley of Kashrnir was included within Ashokas
empire, it is not quite unlikely that the Brahmana's
from other parts of India had come to live in Kashmir
by the time of Ashoka The Raj Tarangini refers to
Brahmanas who had come to Kashmir from Aryadesa.
The descendants of these immigrants seem to have
composed the bulk of Brahmana population of
Kashmi.
8.1 Buhur
Present Hindu population of Kashmir camprises of,
besides Pandits, one or two minority groups viz., Buhur
and Purbi. The origin of Buhrs and Purbis is not
certain. Many contradictory theories have been advanced.
Lavrence describes Buhrs to be of Khatri
origin, while many Pandits maintain that they are the
descendants of those Pandits who lost their caste during
the Muslim rule. Many others believe them to be
the traders of Punjab who came to settle down in
Kashmir along with other Kashmiris during the benevolent rule of Zainulabdin. Census report of 1891
states that their customs and habits prove them the
sons of soil of Kashmir. Buhr's consider themselves
to be the true specimen of Kashmiri Pandits belonging
to Malmasi division. They declare their gotras as
following: Bharadwaj, Vasistha, Kapil, Shandli etc.
Mr. Fauq while quoting Alberoni and Secretary Buhra
Sudhar Sabha, says that a group of Kashmiri Pandits,
used to go to the plains of India for trade, during the
Hindu rule. Naturally they would interdine with the
non-Kashmiri Hindus. This religious unorthodoxy
was resented to by the Pandits and a complaint was
lodged with the King. The King is said to have declared
these traders a separate community by the name
of 'Bakshar', which in the long-run took the form of
Buhur. Mr. T. N. Madan holds the view that their
"Khatri origin is more probable as the Bohra are found
only in Urban areas and their traditional occupation is
trade and shopkeeping. In fact the word Buhur is
often used in Kashmir in the sense of a grocer".
Pandit Anand Koul calls them by the name of Lejbhetta.
He says, "during the Mohammadan rule some Brahmins were
given option to either submit to the sword
or take food prepared by a Musalman. They naturally
quivered at the prospect of death and unwillingly
accepted the later alternative, but in their anguish to
reduce the pollution to its minimum, made the Musalman
cook boil rice in a new lej or earthen pot and when
ready they took the lej with their own hands and
reluctantly ate it. They afterwards expaciated for the
forcible pollution by performing Prayaschitta but still
the Biradari, who were punctilious as ever, ostracised
them". Their descendants are called Lej Bhettas
because their ancestors having taken food cooked by a
Mohammadan in a lej. Bohars on the other hand
claim that their parents had to feign themselves as
Muslims under compelling circumstances and these
fake Muslims gave refuge to the traditional eleven
families of Pandits, who later on belonged to Malmasi
division. These fake Muslims came back to their
original religion as soon as congenial political atmosphere
was restored, but look at the irony of the fate,
the saviours of a community were declared outcastes
by the short-seighted and fanatic members of the same
community.
However, the Buhurs are being gradually assimilated
into Pandit culture. Inter-dining has become a common
feature but the inter-marriages are still an exception
rather than the rule.
8.2 Purbi
Another minority group among Hindus of Kashmir
is known as Purbi. They have been described as a
Sambo Caste, having come into existence either by
Anuloma or Pratiloma form of marriage. Pandit
Anand Koul calls them an illegitimate offspring of a
Brahmana and a Khatri couple. It is too harsh to call
them illegitimate. The Pratiloma and Anuloma form
of marriages are well recognised by ancient law-givers.
Their offspring can by no means be illegitimate. Prof.
Madan, however is of the view, which seems to be
more correct, that they are descendants of those immigrant
Brahmanas who came to Kashmir from Chamba
valley in the East Punjab several hundred years ago.
They used to prefix the word 'Pandit' to their names,
as would be done by Bhattas themselves.
8.3 Gor and Kar Kun
With the ascendance of Zain-UI-ab-din to the
throne of Kashmir, the tide of communalism and
fanaticism subsided, opening a new era of peace
and progress. Hindus were freed from the shackles of Jazia
and other disabilities were removed. Pandits, thus,
started to reorganise and rehabilitate themselves. "By
now the Persian had become the official language.
The desire to share office with others could not be
fulfilled without a study of Persian. The Brahmans
took to the study of Persian and in a brief span of a few
years they acquired a mastery over this language. But
the Sanskrit learning and their religious ceremonies were
not forgotten because this was the only distinctive
feature to keep them alive as a separate group...The
caste was divided further into two sub-castes, the
Karkuns and the Basha Bhattas (Gor), the former
included amongst its fold those who studied Persian
and entered Government service and the latter those
who studied Basha i.e., Sanskrit and took charge of the
religious affairs of the community. But how was the
division of labour to be made? It was decided that a
daughter's son of a person should be made a Basha
Bhatta to administer to the religious needs of his
maternal grandfather's family. The arrangement was simple
enough as it began involving no loss of status to the
Basha Bhatta, but in course of time this arrangement
became responsible for the creation of two distinct
classes with a distinctive culture and mode of life and
habits with the result though there is no legal or religious
bar, yet the two classes seldom inter-marry these days
. .The rise and fall of the Karkun made a corresponding increase or decrease in Basha Bhatta's economic
position.." Socially, because of their economic dependence upon them (Karkuns), they (Gor) in course of
time came to be looked down upon by the Karkuns."
Karkun Pandits being economically well off have
become arrogant and status conscious. Though outward
reverence is shown to a Gor, yet he is considered
inauspicious and greedy. After Independence, an increasing
number of Gors have been opting for Government and other
secular jobs. English education instead of Sanskrit education has
caught their fancy. This has decreased the number of professional
Gors alarmingly. That time may not be far away when a
Karkun Pandit will have either to learn the religious
scriptures himself, or will have to fare goodbye to all
the Karma Kanda for ever.
8.4 Pandits
Some Karkuns, during Sikh rule, are said to have
rededicated themselves to the study of Sanskrit and
religion, without taking up the priestly duties. They
were called Pandits. Those who were well-versed in
astrology and drew up calendars and almanacs were
known as Jyotshi. Presiding priest of Shiva Worship
were called Gurrins and receivers of alms and offerings
at the funeral of a Karkun were called as Panyechh.
They were untouchables both for a Karkun and a Gor
and were found to be in the city of Srinagar alone.
8.5 Banamasi and Malamasi
The oppressive Muslim rule failed to teach any
worthwhile lesson to Kashmiri Pandits. As soon as
the normalcy was restored and the self-exiled Pandits
began to re-habilitate themselves in the valley they
(Pandits) divided themselves again into two groups
viz., Malamasi and Banamasi. Socially this division uas
inconsequential, still it was adopted to indicate the
immigrants and those who did not leave the valley.
The Malamasi Pandits follow the lunar calendar and
the Banamasis observe the solar months. This has
given birth to the absurd practice of observing two Shiv
Ratris, two Janmashtamis etc., a phenomenon unknown
to rest of India.
8.6 Surnames
The use of surnames in ancient Kashmir is negligible,
Present Kashmiri surnames have more or less
evolved during the Muslim and Sikh rule. It is stated
that almost all the Kashmiri Pandits were Koul's and
they were later on subdivided according to different
nicknames and with the passage of time, these nicknames
became permanent surnames. There seems to
be some truth in this statement primarily because all
the Kashmiri Pandits are Shaivites and Mahakoul is
one of the names of Lord Shiva, and secondly because
the number of nicknames even now attached with the
surname Koul is largest of all. Moreover, in recent years
the use of nicknames is being progressively discarded
and the surname Koul is being adopted more than any
ther surname by almost all such people.
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Nicknames
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