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Raja Rammohan Roy, Dayananda Saraswati and Keshab Chandra Sen,
among others, weaved a crucial social revolution in the 19th
century. D V Prasad Rao takes a look at their contributions.
The second half of the 19th Century was marked by a strong wave of
reform activities in religion and society in India, the path of
which had been paved by Raja Rammohan Roy. There was a general
recognition of the existing evils and abuses in both.
The reforms, however, followed diverse channels. Some were lured by
the Western ideas to follow an extreme radical policy, which
provoked a reaction seeking to strengthen the forces of orthodoxy.
Between them were moderate reformers, who wanted to proceed more
cautiously along the line of least resistance. The chief movements
which took place can be summarized under two heads: those resulting
in the establishment of a group or order outside the pale of
orthodox Hindu society: and those involving general changes in the
belief, customs and practices of Hindus as a whole.
The Brahmo Samaj
Of all the religious movements of the 19th Century, the Brahmo
Samaj, undoubtedly, proved the most influential. 'Brahmo' is an
adjective formed from Brahman, the god of the Upanishads and the
Vedanta philosophy, and 'samaj' means society. Throughout its
history, the Brahmo Samaj has been sternly theistic and opposed to
idol worship, and has always had a policy of reform. Raja Rammohan
Roy (1772-1883), the founder of the Samaj was the pioneer of all
advancement - religious, social and educational - that occurred in
the Hindu community during the 19th Century.
Originally named Brahmo Sabha (the Brahman Association), its chief
supporters were three wealthy men, of whom the most notable was
Prince Dwarka Nath Tagore. The fist meeting was held on August
20,1828. The society met every Saturday evening from 7 pm to 9 pm.
There was no organization, no membership, no creed. There were
weekly recitations from the Vedas by orthodox Brahmins:
non-Brahmins were not allowed to participate.
With Raja Rammohan Roy's departure for England and his subsequent
death there, the organization's activities faced a sudden decline.
Until new life was infused into it by Devendranath Tagore (father
of Rabindranath Tagore). He established a cultural organization
called the Tattvabodhini Sabha in 1839 and formally joined the new
movement in 1843.
The movement gained a notable recruit in Keshab Chandra Sen who
joined it in 1857. His fervent devotion, passionate enthusiasm and
wonderful eloquence popularized the movement and increased its
members. He also carried its rationalistic principles further and
founded what may be called the new Brahmaism.
But Sen's progressive ideas were met with dissent by the party
elders, forcing him to start a separate organization which included
most of the local branches. Thus, by 1865, the Brahmo Samaj was
divided into two camps - the conservatives-and the progressives.
The former included those who believed in one God and discarded the
worship of images, but did not want to sever all connections with
Hindu society, while the latter comprised those who regarded
popular Hinduism as too narrow and chafed at the Sanskrit texts and
the social practices which symbolized the religion.
The newly-started Brahmo Samaj of India had a triumphant career
under the guidance of Keshab Chandra Sen. The inclusion of women as
members and the adoption of a moderate programme of social reform
formed a new feature of the rejuvenated society. It was chiefly
due to Its efforts that the government passed the Act III of 1872,
which abolished early marriage of girls and polygamy, and
sanctioned widow remarriages and inter-caste marriages for those
who did not profess any recognized faith such as Hinduism and
Islam.
Many far-reaching changes in Hindu social ideas have been and are
still being brought about, steadily and silently, by the indirect
influence of the Brahmo Samaj. Curiously enough, the only point
where it has failed to influence Hindu society to an appreciable
degree is its emphasis on monotheism and the abolition of the
worship of images, the first and fundamental idea with which the
new movement was started.
The Prarthana Samaj
The Brahmo Samaj gradually spread outside Bengal but nowhere did it
take deep root except in Maharashtra where it led to the
establishment of the Prarthana Samaj. Like the Brahmo Samaj,
rational worship of one God and social reform formed its ideals.
It was in 1867 under the influence of Keshab Chandra Sen that the
Prarthana Samaj came into existence. Its followers were devoted
theists, followers of the great religious tradition of Maratha
saints like Namdev, Tukaram and Ramdas. But instead of religious
speculation, they devoted their chief attention to social reform
such as inter-dining and Inter-marriage among different castes,
remarriage of widows and improvement of the lot of women and
depressed classes.
The Prarthana Samaj has been the centre of many activities of
social reform in western India. Its success is chiefly due to
Justice Mahadev Govinda Ranade. He devoted his whole life- to the
furtherance of the objectives of the Prarthana Samaj. His ideas of
reform were very comprehensive. He emphasized that "the reformer
must attempt to deal with the whole man and not to carry out reform
on one side only". "The social organism in India," according to
him, "shows a growth which should not be ignored and cannot be
forcibly suppressed."
The Brahmo Samaj and the Prarthana Samaj were largely products of
ideas associated with the West, and represent the Indian response
to Western rationalism. Far different in character were two other
reform movements which took their inspiration from India's past and
derived their basic principles from its ancient scriptures.
The Arya Samaj
The first in order of time is the Arya Samaj, founded by Swami
Dayananda Saraswati (1824-1883). Dayananda was a Sanskrit scholar
but had no English education. His motto was 'Go back to the
Vedas'. He not only disregarded the authority of the later
scriptures like the Puranas but also had no hesitation in declaring
them to be the writings of selfish, ignorant men.
Like Raja Rammohan Roy, Dayananda believed in one God and decried
polytheism and the use of images. He also raised his voice against
the restrictions of caste, child-marriage and prohibition of
sea-faring, and encouraged female education and remarriage of
widows. He began the Shuddhi Movement, which involved the
conversion of non-Hindus to Hinduism.
Although Dayananda started from the same basic principle as Raja
Rammohan Roy, he lacked the critical spirit of the latter. He
claimed that ,,any scientific theory or principle which is thought
to be of modern origin may be proved to be set forth in the Vedas."
Despite his limitations, Dayananda proved a dynamic force in Hindu
society. His appeal to the masses was an eye-opener to all
reformers, social, religious and political, and the social and
educational work done by him and his followers has achieved
excellent results. After his death, his work was continued by his
followers, chief among whom were Lala Hansraj, Pandit Guru Dutt,
Lala Lajpat Rai and Swami Shraddhananda.
The Arya Samaj, however, did not escape the rationalism of the
present age. Already there was a growing section among it which
recognized the value of English education and was inclined to a
more liberal programme.
In conclusion, it may be noted that Dayananda, at the beginning of
his career, tried to come to terms with the Brahmo Samaj for which
a conference was held in Calcutta in 1869. Nothing came of it,
however, and the Arya Samaj overwhelmed and absorbed the Brahma
Samaj in the Punjab, where, in Lahore, a Brahma Samaj had already
been started in 18W.
Ramakrishna Mission
The synthesis of the two great forces, the ancient or Oriental and
the modern or Western, marks the Ramakrishna Mission, the last
great religious and social movement which characterizes the 19th
Century.
Ramakrishna Paramahansa (18361886), after whom the Mission is
named, was a poor priest in a temple at Dakshineshwar near
Calcutta. He scarcely had any formal education but led an intensely
spiritual life in his splendid isolation.
He had a deep faith in the inherent truth of all religions and
tested his belief by performing religious exercises in accordance
with the practice and usage not only of different Hindu sects, but
also of Islam and Christianity. He lived and died a secluded
spiritual devotee, unknown except to a comparatively small group of
people.
The most famous among his disciples and his most beloved, was
Narendranath Dutta, later famous as Swami Vivekananda (1863-1902).
It was he who carried the message of Ramakrishna all over India.
The Ramakrishna Mission stands for religious and social reform, but
takes its inspiration from the ancient culture of India. It holds
up the pure Vedantic doctrine as its ideal, and aims at the
development of the highest spirituality inherent in man. But at
the same time, it recognizes the value and utility of later
developments in natural sciences and technology. Another
characteristic feature of the Mission is a belief in the truth of
all religions.
In addition to these two characteristic features, the success of
the Mission in and outside India is due to several other causes.
In the first place it has no aggressive proselytising zeal. It has
no desire to develop into a separate sect like the Brahmo Samaj or
the Arya Samaj - it chooses to remain a purely monastic order,
disseminating reforming ideas among the masses without violently
uprooting them from their social or religious environments.
Secondly, it has put in the forefront of its programme the idea of
social service, not as mere philanthropic work, but as an essential
discipline for religious and spiritual life.
In Swami Vivekananda the patriotic and spiritual impulses mingled
in a supreme desire to uplift the manhood of India with a view to
restoring the country to its proper place among the nations of the
world. He believed that the present warring world can be saved by
spiritual teachings which India alone can impart, but before it can
do this It must enjoy the respect of other nations by raising its
own status.
Instead of the apologetic tone and the sense of inferiority which
marked the Indian attitude towards European culture and
civilization, a refreshing boldness and consciousness of inherent
strength marked the utterances of Swami Vivekananda.
Theosophical Society
The Theosophical Society was founded by the 'mysterious' Madame H P
Blavatsky and Col H S Olcott in the United States in 1875. They
came to India in 1879 and in 1886 established their headquarters in
Adyar, a suburb of Madras. The real success of the movement in
India is, however, due to Dr Annie Besant, who joined the Society
in 1889. She settled down in India in 1893 at the age, of 46.
>From the very start, the Society allied itself to the Hindu revival
movement. Besant believed that the present problems of India could
be solved by the revival of her ancient ideals and institutions.
She started the Central Hindu School in Benares as a chief means of
achieving her object. She lavished her resources and energy on
this institution, which gradually developed into a college and was
ultimately merged into the Hindu University.
The Theosophical Society with its many branches all over India has
proved an important factor in social and religious reform
especially in South India. But in its attempt to revert to the
old, it supports some usages and beliefs which are considered by
many to be retrograde in nature, and its occult mysticism has
alienated many who might have been its followers.
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